Why Is It Necessary To Use A Reference In The Argument To The Copy Constructor?
If we pass the copy constructor the argument by value, its copy would get constructed using the copy constructor. This means the copy constructor would call itself to make this copy. This process would go on and on until the compiler runs out of memory. This can be explained with the help of following example
class sample
{
int i ;
public
sample ( sample p )
{
i = p.i ;
}
} ;
void main( )
{
sample s ;
sample s1 ( s ) ;
}
While executing the statement sample s1 ( s ), the copy constructor would get called. As the copy construct here accepts a value, the value of s would be passed which would get collected in p. We can think of this statement as sample p = s. Here p is getting created and initialized. Means again the copy constructor would get called. This would result into recursive calls. Hence we must use a reference as an argument in a copy constructor.
What Is C++?
Released in 1985, C++ is an object-oriented programming language created by Bjarne Stroustrup. C++ maintains almost all aspects of the C language, while simplifying memory management and adding several features - including a new datatype known as a class (you will learn more about these later) - to allow object-oriented programming. C++ maintains the features of C which allowed for low-level memory access but also gives the programmer new tools to simplify memory management.
C++ used for
C++ is a powerful general-purpose programming language. It can be used to create small programs or large applications. It can be used to make CGI scripts or console-only DOS programs. C++ allows you to create programs to do almost anything you need to do. The creator of C++, Bjarne Stroustrup, has put together a partial list of applications written in C++.
What Is A Modifier In C++?
A modifier, also called a modifying function is a member function that changes the value of at least one data member. In other words, an operation that modifies the state of an object. Modifiers are also known as 'mutators'. Example: The function mod is a modifier in the following code snippet
class test
{
int x,y;
public
test()
{
x=0; y=0;
}
void mod()
{ x=10;
y=15;
}
};
What Is An Accessor In C++?
An accessor is a class operation that does not modify the state of an object in C++. The accessor functions need to be declared as const operations.
Differentiate Between A Template Class And Class Template In C++?
Template class: A generic definition or a parameterized class not instantiated until the client provides the needed information. It's jargon for plain templates.
Class template: A class template specifies how individual classes can be constructed much like the way a class specifies how individual objects can be constructed. It's jargon for plain classes.
When Does A Name Clash Occur In C++?
A name clash occurs when a name is defined in more than one place. For example., two different class libraries could give two different classes the same name. If you try to use many class libraries at the same time, there is a fair chance that you will be unable to compile or link the program because of name clashes.
Define Namespace In C++?
It is a feature in C++ to minimize name collisions in the global name space. This namespace keyword assigns a distinct name to a library that allows other libraries to use the same identifier names without creating any name collisions. Furthermore, the compiler uses the namespace signature for differentiating the definitions.
What Is The Use Of 'using' Declaration In C++?
A using declaration in C++ makes it possible to use a name from a namespace without the scope operator.
What Is An Iterator Class In C++?
A class that is used to traverse through the objects maintained by a container class. There are five categories of iterators: input iterators, output iterators, forward iterators, bidirectional iterators, random access. An iterator is an entity that gives access to the contents of a container object without violating encapsulation constraints. Access to the contents is granted on a one-at-a-time basis in order. The order can be storage order (as in lists and queues) or some arbitrary order (as in array indices) or according to some ordering relation (as in an ordered binary tree). The iterator is a construct, which provides an interface that, when called, yields either the next element in the container, or some value denoting the fact that there are no more elements to examine. Iterators hide the details of access to and update of the elements of a container class. The simplest and safest iterators are those that permit read-only access to the contents of a container class.
What Is An Incomplete Type In C++?
Incomplete types refers to pointers in which there is non availability of the implementation of the referenced location or it points to some location whose value is not available for modification.
int *i=0x400 //i points to address 400
*i=0; //set the value of memory location pointed by i.
Incomplete types are otherwise called uninitialized pointers.
What Is A Dangling Pointer In C++?
A dangling pointer arises when you use the address of an object after its lifetime is over. This may occur in situations like returning addresses of the automatic variables from a function or using the address of the memory block after it is freed. The following code snippet shows this
class Sample
{
public:int *ptr; Sample(int i)
{
ptr = new int(i);
}
~Sample()
{
delete ptr;
}
void PrintValO
{
cout« "The value is " « *ptr;
}
};
void SomeFunc(Sample x)
{
cout« "Say i am in someFunc " « endl;
}
int main()
{
Sample si = 10;
SomeFunc(sl);
sl.PrintVal();
}
In the above example when PrintVal() function is called it is called by the pointer that has been freed by the destructor in SomeFunc.
Differentiate Between The Message And Method In C++?
Message in C++
Objects communicate by sending messages to each other.
A message is sent to invoke a method in C++.
Method in C++
Provides response to a message.
It is an implementation of an operation in C++.
What Is An Adaptor Class Or Wrapper Class In C++?
A class that has no functionality of its own is an Adaptor class in C++. Its member functions hide the use of a third party software component or an object with the non-compatible interface or a non-object-oriented implementation.
What Is A Null Object In C++?
It is an object of some class whose purpose is to indicate that a real object of that class does not exist. One common use for a null object is a return value from a member function that is supposed to return an object with some specified properties but cannot find such an object.
What Is Class Invariant In C++?
A class invariant is a condition that defines all valid states for an object. It is a logical condition to ensure the correct working of a class. Class invariants must hold when an object is created, and they must be preserved under all operations of the class. In particular all class invariants are both preconditions and post-conditions for all operations or member functions of the class.
What Do You Mean By Stack Unwinding In C++?
Stack unwinding in C++ is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local objects between the place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.
Define Pre-condition And Post-condition To A Member Function In C++?
Precondition: A precondition is a condition that must be true on entry to a member function. A class is used correctly if preconditions are never false. An operation is not responsible for doing anything sensible if its precondition fails to hold. For example, the interface invariants of stack class say nothing about pushing yet another element on a stack that is already full. We say that isful() is a precondition of the push operation.
Post-condition: A post-condition is a condition that must be true on exit from a member function if the precondition was valid on entry to that function. A class is implemented correctly if post-conditions are never false. For example, after pushing an element on the stack, we know that isempty() must necessarily hold. This is a post-condition of the push operation.
What Are The Conditions That Have To Be Met For A Condition To Be An Invariant Of The Class?
The condition should hold at the end of every constructor.
The condition should hold at the end of every mutator (non-const) operation.
What Are Proxy Objects In C++?
Objects that stand for other objects are called proxy objects or surrogates.
template <class t=""> class Array2D
{
public
class Array ID
{
public
T&operator[](int index);
const T&operator[](int index)const;
};
Array ID operator[] (int index);
const Array ID operator[] (int index) const;
};
The following then becomes legal
Array2D<float>data(l0,20); cout«data[3][6]; // fine
Here data[3] yields an ArraylD object and the operator [] invocation on that object yields the float in position(3,6) of the original two dimensional array. Clients of the Array 2D class need not be aware of the presence of the ArraylD class. Objects of this latter class stand for one-dimensional array objects that, conceptually, do not exist for clients of Array2D. Such clients program as if they were using real, live, two-dimensional arrays. Each ArraylD object stands for a one-dimensional array that is absent from a conceptual model used by the clients of Array2D. In the above example, ArraylD is a proxy class. Its instances stand for one-dimensional arrays that, conceptually, do not exist.
Name Some Pure Object Oriented Languages?
pure object oriented languages are Smalltalk, Java, Eiffel, Sather.
What Is A Node Class In C++?
A node class is a class that,
relies on the base class for services and implementation.
provides a wider interface to the users than its base class.
relies primarily on virtual functions in its public interface.
depends on all its direct and indirect base class.
can be understood only in the context of the base class.
can be used as base for further derivation.
can be used to create objects.
A node class is a class that has added new services or functionality beyond the services inherited from its base class.
What Is An Orthogonal Base Class In C++?
If two base classes have no overlapping methods or data they are said to be independent of, or orthogonal to each other. Orthogonal in the sense means that two classes operate in different dimensions and do not interfere with each other in any way. The same derived class may inherit such classes with no difficulty.
What Is A Container Class? What Are The Types Of Container Classes In C++?
A container class is a class that is used to hold objects in memory or external storage. A container class acts as a generic holder. A container class has a predefined behavior and a well-known interface. A container class is a supporting class whose purpose is to hide the topology used for maintaining the list of objects in memory. When a container class contains a group of mixed objects, the container is called a heterogeneous container; when the container is holding a group of objects that are all the same, the container is called a homogeneous container.
How Do You Write A Function That Can Reverse A Linked-list In C++?
void reverselist(void)
{ if(head==0)
return;
if(head-<next==0)
return;
if(head-<next==tail)
{
head-<next = 0;
tail-<next = head;
} else
{
node* pre = head;
node* cur = head-<next;
node* curnext = cur-<next; head-<next = 0; cur-<next = head;
for(; curnext !=0;)
{
cur-<next = pre;
pre = cur;
cur = curnext;
curnext = curnext-<next;
}
curnext-<next = cur;
}
}
What Is Polymorphism In C++?
Polymorphism in C++ is the idea that a base class can be inherited by several classes. A base class pointer can point to its child class and a base class array can store different child class objects.
How Do You Find Out If A Linked-list Has An End? (i.e. The List Is Not A Cycle)
You can find out by using 2 pointers. One of them goes 2 nodes each time. The second one goes at 1 nodes each time. If there is a cycle, the one that goes 2 nodes each time will eventually meet the one that goes slower. If that is the case, then you will know the linked-list is a cycle.
How Can You Tell What Shell You Are Running On Unix System?
You can do the Echo $RANDOM. It will return a undefined variable if you are from the C-Shell, just a return prompt if you are from the Bourne shell, and a 5 digit random numbers if you are from the Korn shell. You could also do a ps -1 and look for the shell with the highest P(K).
What Is Boyce Codd Normal Form?
A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional dependencies if for all functional dependencies in F+ of the form a->b, where a and b is a subset of R, at least one of the following holds
a->b is a trivial functional dependency (b is a subset of a).
a is a superkey for schema R.
What Is Pure Virtual Function?
A class is made abstract by declaring one or more of its virtual functions to be pure. A pure virtual function is one with an initializer of = 0 in its declaration.
Write A Struct Time Where Integer M, H, S Are Its Members
struct Time
{
int m;
int h;
int s;
};
How Do You Traverse A Btree In Backward In-order?
Process the node in the right subtree.
Process the root.
Process the node in the left subtree.
What Is The Two Main Roles Of Operating System?
As a resource manager.
As a virtual machine.
In The Derived Class, Which Data Member Of The Base Class Are Visible?
In the public and protected sections.
If we pass the copy constructor the argument by value, its copy would get constructed using the copy constructor. This means the copy constructor would call itself to make this copy. This process would go on and on until the compiler runs out of memory. This can be explained with the help of following example
class sample
{
int i ;
public
sample ( sample p )
{
i = p.i ;
}
} ;
void main( )
{
sample s ;
sample s1 ( s ) ;
}
While executing the statement sample s1 ( s ), the copy constructor would get called. As the copy construct here accepts a value, the value of s would be passed which would get collected in p. We can think of this statement as sample p = s. Here p is getting created and initialized. Means again the copy constructor would get called. This would result into recursive calls. Hence we must use a reference as an argument in a copy constructor.
What Is C++?
Released in 1985, C++ is an object-oriented programming language created by Bjarne Stroustrup. C++ maintains almost all aspects of the C language, while simplifying memory management and adding several features - including a new datatype known as a class (you will learn more about these later) - to allow object-oriented programming. C++ maintains the features of C which allowed for low-level memory access but also gives the programmer new tools to simplify memory management.
C++ used for
C++ is a powerful general-purpose programming language. It can be used to create small programs or large applications. It can be used to make CGI scripts or console-only DOS programs. C++ allows you to create programs to do almost anything you need to do. The creator of C++, Bjarne Stroustrup, has put together a partial list of applications written in C++.
What Is A Modifier In C++?
A modifier, also called a modifying function is a member function that changes the value of at least one data member. In other words, an operation that modifies the state of an object. Modifiers are also known as 'mutators'. Example: The function mod is a modifier in the following code snippet
class test
{
int x,y;
public
test()
{
x=0; y=0;
}
void mod()
{ x=10;
y=15;
}
};
What Is An Accessor In C++?
An accessor is a class operation that does not modify the state of an object in C++. The accessor functions need to be declared as const operations.
 |
| Naver Frequently Asked C++ Interview Questions Answers |
Differentiate Between A Template Class And Class Template In C++?
Template class: A generic definition or a parameterized class not instantiated until the client provides the needed information. It's jargon for plain templates.
Class template: A class template specifies how individual classes can be constructed much like the way a class specifies how individual objects can be constructed. It's jargon for plain classes.
When Does A Name Clash Occur In C++?
A name clash occurs when a name is defined in more than one place. For example., two different class libraries could give two different classes the same name. If you try to use many class libraries at the same time, there is a fair chance that you will be unable to compile or link the program because of name clashes.
Define Namespace In C++?
It is a feature in C++ to minimize name collisions in the global name space. This namespace keyword assigns a distinct name to a library that allows other libraries to use the same identifier names without creating any name collisions. Furthermore, the compiler uses the namespace signature for differentiating the definitions.
What Is The Use Of 'using' Declaration In C++?
A using declaration in C++ makes it possible to use a name from a namespace without the scope operator.
What Is An Iterator Class In C++?
A class that is used to traverse through the objects maintained by a container class. There are five categories of iterators: input iterators, output iterators, forward iterators, bidirectional iterators, random access. An iterator is an entity that gives access to the contents of a container object without violating encapsulation constraints. Access to the contents is granted on a one-at-a-time basis in order. The order can be storage order (as in lists and queues) or some arbitrary order (as in array indices) or according to some ordering relation (as in an ordered binary tree). The iterator is a construct, which provides an interface that, when called, yields either the next element in the container, or some value denoting the fact that there are no more elements to examine. Iterators hide the details of access to and update of the elements of a container class. The simplest and safest iterators are those that permit read-only access to the contents of a container class.
What Is An Incomplete Type In C++?
Incomplete types refers to pointers in which there is non availability of the implementation of the referenced location or it points to some location whose value is not available for modification.
int *i=0x400 //i points to address 400
*i=0; //set the value of memory location pointed by i.
Incomplete types are otherwise called uninitialized pointers.
What Is A Dangling Pointer In C++?
A dangling pointer arises when you use the address of an object after its lifetime is over. This may occur in situations like returning addresses of the automatic variables from a function or using the address of the memory block after it is freed. The following code snippet shows this
class Sample
{
public:int *ptr; Sample(int i)
{
ptr = new int(i);
}
~Sample()
{
delete ptr;
}
void PrintValO
{
cout« "The value is " « *ptr;
}
};
void SomeFunc(Sample x)
{
cout« "Say i am in someFunc " « endl;
}
int main()
{
Sample si = 10;
SomeFunc(sl);
sl.PrintVal();
}
In the above example when PrintVal() function is called it is called by the pointer that has been freed by the destructor in SomeFunc.
Differentiate Between The Message And Method In C++?
Message in C++
Objects communicate by sending messages to each other.
A message is sent to invoke a method in C++.
Method in C++
Provides response to a message.
It is an implementation of an operation in C++.
What Is An Adaptor Class Or Wrapper Class In C++?
A class that has no functionality of its own is an Adaptor class in C++. Its member functions hide the use of a third party software component or an object with the non-compatible interface or a non-object-oriented implementation.
What Is A Null Object In C++?
It is an object of some class whose purpose is to indicate that a real object of that class does not exist. One common use for a null object is a return value from a member function that is supposed to return an object with some specified properties but cannot find such an object.
What Is Class Invariant In C++?
A class invariant is a condition that defines all valid states for an object. It is a logical condition to ensure the correct working of a class. Class invariants must hold when an object is created, and they must be preserved under all operations of the class. In particular all class invariants are both preconditions and post-conditions for all operations or member functions of the class.
What Do You Mean By Stack Unwinding In C++?
Stack unwinding in C++ is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local objects between the place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.
Define Pre-condition And Post-condition To A Member Function In C++?
Precondition: A precondition is a condition that must be true on entry to a member function. A class is used correctly if preconditions are never false. An operation is not responsible for doing anything sensible if its precondition fails to hold. For example, the interface invariants of stack class say nothing about pushing yet another element on a stack that is already full. We say that isful() is a precondition of the push operation.
Post-condition: A post-condition is a condition that must be true on exit from a member function if the precondition was valid on entry to that function. A class is implemented correctly if post-conditions are never false. For example, after pushing an element on the stack, we know that isempty() must necessarily hold. This is a post-condition of the push operation.
What Are The Conditions That Have To Be Met For A Condition To Be An Invariant Of The Class?
The condition should hold at the end of every constructor.
The condition should hold at the end of every mutator (non-const) operation.
What Are Proxy Objects In C++?
Objects that stand for other objects are called proxy objects or surrogates.
template <class t=""> class Array2D
{
public
class Array ID
{
public
T&operator[](int index);
const T&operator[](int index)const;
};
Array ID operator[] (int index);
const Array ID operator[] (int index) const;
};
The following then becomes legal
Array2D<float>data(l0,20); cout«data[3][6]; // fine
Here data[3] yields an ArraylD object and the operator [] invocation on that object yields the float in position(3,6) of the original two dimensional array. Clients of the Array 2D class need not be aware of the presence of the ArraylD class. Objects of this latter class stand for one-dimensional array objects that, conceptually, do not exist for clients of Array2D. Such clients program as if they were using real, live, two-dimensional arrays. Each ArraylD object stands for a one-dimensional array that is absent from a conceptual model used by the clients of Array2D. In the above example, ArraylD is a proxy class. Its instances stand for one-dimensional arrays that, conceptually, do not exist.
Name Some Pure Object Oriented Languages?
pure object oriented languages are Smalltalk, Java, Eiffel, Sather.
What Is A Node Class In C++?
A node class is a class that,
relies on the base class for services and implementation.
provides a wider interface to the users than its base class.
relies primarily on virtual functions in its public interface.
depends on all its direct and indirect base class.
can be understood only in the context of the base class.
can be used as base for further derivation.
can be used to create objects.
A node class is a class that has added new services or functionality beyond the services inherited from its base class.
What Is An Orthogonal Base Class In C++?
If two base classes have no overlapping methods or data they are said to be independent of, or orthogonal to each other. Orthogonal in the sense means that two classes operate in different dimensions and do not interfere with each other in any way. The same derived class may inherit such classes with no difficulty.
What Is A Container Class? What Are The Types Of Container Classes In C++?
A container class is a class that is used to hold objects in memory or external storage. A container class acts as a generic holder. A container class has a predefined behavior and a well-known interface. A container class is a supporting class whose purpose is to hide the topology used for maintaining the list of objects in memory. When a container class contains a group of mixed objects, the container is called a heterogeneous container; when the container is holding a group of objects that are all the same, the container is called a homogeneous container.
How Do You Write A Function That Can Reverse A Linked-list In C++?
void reverselist(void)
{ if(head==0)
return;
if(head-<next==0)
return;
if(head-<next==tail)
{
head-<next = 0;
tail-<next = head;
} else
{
node* pre = head;
node* cur = head-<next;
node* curnext = cur-<next; head-<next = 0; cur-<next = head;
for(; curnext !=0;)
{
cur-<next = pre;
pre = cur;
cur = curnext;
curnext = curnext-<next;
}
curnext-<next = cur;
}
}
What Is Polymorphism In C++?
Polymorphism in C++ is the idea that a base class can be inherited by several classes. A base class pointer can point to its child class and a base class array can store different child class objects.
How Do You Find Out If A Linked-list Has An End? (i.e. The List Is Not A Cycle)
You can find out by using 2 pointers. One of them goes 2 nodes each time. The second one goes at 1 nodes each time. If there is a cycle, the one that goes 2 nodes each time will eventually meet the one that goes slower. If that is the case, then you will know the linked-list is a cycle.
How Can You Tell What Shell You Are Running On Unix System?
You can do the Echo $RANDOM. It will return a undefined variable if you are from the C-Shell, just a return prompt if you are from the Bourne shell, and a 5 digit random numbers if you are from the Korn shell. You could also do a ps -1 and look for the shell with the highest P(K).
What Is Boyce Codd Normal Form?
A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional dependencies if for all functional dependencies in F+ of the form a->b, where a and b is a subset of R, at least one of the following holds
a->b is a trivial functional dependency (b is a subset of a).
a is a superkey for schema R.
What Is Pure Virtual Function?
A class is made abstract by declaring one or more of its virtual functions to be pure. A pure virtual function is one with an initializer of = 0 in its declaration.
Write A Struct Time Where Integer M, H, S Are Its Members
struct Time
{
int m;
int h;
int s;
};
How Do You Traverse A Btree In Backward In-order?
Process the node in the right subtree.
Process the root.
Process the node in the left subtree.
What Is The Two Main Roles Of Operating System?
As a resource manager.
As a virtual machine.
In The Derived Class, Which Data Member Of The Base Class Are Visible?
In the public and protected sections.